Application

This study introduces a neural network-based method for nonparametric analysis of the Hubble diagram, extended to high redshifts. Validated using simulated data, the method aligns with a flat Λ (Lambda) cold dark matter model (ΩM ≈ 0.3) up to z ≈ 1-1.5, but deviates at higher redshifts. It also suggests increasing ΩM values with redshift, indicating potential dark energy evolution.